RES Subglacial Mapping for Extraterrestrial Colonization

RES Subglacial Mapping for Extraterrestrial Colonization RES Subglacial Mapping Used to Assess Extraterrestrial Colonization Eric Phelan Successful colonization of another planet involves countless variables being addressed prior to mission launch. Water, being essential to sustaining human life, must be available in sizable quantities in order to establish a fruitful, long-term colony. But even with water filtration systems operating at one hundred percent efficiency, a viable native source of water must be identified on the planet if the colony is ever expected to prosper. Radio Echo Sounding may provide a solution to this problem. Introduction Radio Echo Sounding, Ice Penetrating Radar, or more commonly Radioglaciology, has been used for many years to map the subsurface of glaciers all across the globe. From massive canyons to pockets of trapped volcanic ash, RES has been a valuable tool in understanding how glaciers form and what they contain. In more recent years, studies have been conducted on the identification of subglacial lakes. These results may prove valuable when locating viable and continuous sources of water on otherwise desolate planets. We have already identified large ice caps on Mars [1] and that Jupiter’s Satellite, Europa, is covered in water ice [2]. We have even discovered small pockets of ice in craters on the moon [3]. The issue is that we must somehow extract usable water from these locations. It would be too costly and inefficient to continuously melt ice for use, so the next option is to identify pockets of fresh water in the ice. Radioglaciology gets us one step closer to identifying ideal colony locations by first locating large subglacial lakes. These subsurface fresh water bodies could provide just enough water for a colony to grow steadily and flourish. While scientists utilize RES here on Earth, we get one step closer to colonization of other planets. Greenland: Beneath the Ice As early as 1964, advanced RES techniques were being used in Greenland to map the subsurface beneath the mile thick ice sheet. [4] Just last year, RES surveys helped make a discovery of massive proportions. A canyon 50 percent longer than Arizona’s Grand Canyon was discovered snaking its way north toward Petermann Glacier [5][6]. This allowed scientists to extrapolate subsurface river data proving that looking beneath the surface of the ice on our own world delivers extremely valuable information that we otherwise would have failed to acquire. If we can find ancient river systems and lakes on Earth using this technique, it should be viable on other planets. Antarctica: The Hostile Habitat As more research teams explore Antarctica, the use of RES surveying is becoming more extensive. The concept that is being tested here is that liquid water can form beneath these ice sheets due to the bed being above water’s pressure melting point. These surveys have found 379 lakes in Antarctica nearly 4000 meters beneath the ice [7]. While scientists are currently more interested in finding life that miraculously escaped extinction 35 million years ago, these lakes also are important in determining whether other planets may have enough liquid water housed in their ice caps to support a human population. Although the popular and most commonly used methodology of RES surveys employs airplanes with radio equipment, satellites are also viable tools for the job. A satellite deployed in orbit around a planet can map elevation changes in ice sheets that are indicative of subsurface water movements. The more movements there are, the more active the lakes and rivers are beneath the surface. Knowing this can help us determine whether lakes are replenishing quickly or have a limited source of water. As Antarctica is arguably the most hostile surface environment on Earth, it is a good training ground for setting up an extraterrestrial colony. Exposure to the inclement weather can cause irreversible damage to the human body within minutes, testing the boundaries of what our technology and potential colonists can handle. Establishing drilling projects to extract water from these subglacial lakes may be the natural â€Å"next step† in determining our capacity to survive on other planets. If we can manage to transport liquid water from 2.5 miles beneath the surface to an outpost above, we will have tested and proved a technology that could someday be used on other worlds. Space Colonization Figure 3: Artist’s conception of a moon base http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_colonization The moon is a likely first candidate for space colonization. With the discovery of large concentrations of frozen water in deep craters on the moon in 2009 [3], humanity may have more incentive than ever before to establish a colony there. With the ability to find pockets of water in these ice pits, we are well on our way to finding a viable location on the lunar surface to establish a new home. RES surveys of the moon can be conducted from Earth’s surface, but for greater resolution we must get closer. Placing RES satellites in orbit around the moon would allow us to pinpoint liquid water access spots. The same technique would be viable on Mars and, eventually, Europa. If we can establish a stable colony on the moon first, though, we will be one step closer to reaching our full potential as a species. Conclusion The number of planets out in space is immeasurable. If only a fraction of them had water ice on the surface, it would open us up to countless possibilities. With the advancement of RES technologies, we will one day be able to detect water in places that we would have otherwise missed. Finding pockets of water buried deep beneath the ice on Mars or Europa using RES techniques would go a long way toward expanding humanity’s reach into the known universe. We could finally establish colonies on planets that were once thought to be impossible to access. It may be the stuff of science fiction today, but someday in the future this data will be used by engineers and architects to plan out large scale cityscapes that support thousands of lives. It would be the dawn of a new golden age for human civilization, and all of it made possible through the advancement of RES technologies. [1] Bibring, J., Langevin, Y., Poulet, F., Gendrin, A., al, e. (2004). Perennial water ice identified in the south polar cap of mars. Nature, 428(6983), 627-30. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/204531038?accountid=14503 [2] Chyba, C. F., Phillips, C. B. (2002). Europa as an abode of life. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, 32(1), 47-68. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1013958519734 [3] Cowen, R. (2009, Oct 24). The damp moon: Team finds water on lunar surface. Science News, 176, 10. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/197505984?accountid=14503 [4] TURCHETTI, S., DEAN, K., NAYLOR, S., SIEGERT, M. (2008). Accidents and opportunities: A history of the radio echo-sounding of antarctica, 1958-79. British Journal for the History of Science, 41(3), 417-444. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0007087408000903 [5] Wayman, E. (2013, Oct 05). Introducing. Science News, 184, 4. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1441704876?accountid=14503 [6] Oskin, B. (2013, August 29). Grand Canyon of Greenland Discovered Under Ice Sheet. LiveScience. Retrieved from http://www.livescience.com/39289-greenland-longest-canyon-discovered.html [7] Davies, B. (n.d.). Antarctic subglacial lakes. antarcticglaciers.org. Retrieved from http://www.antarcticglaciers.org/modern-glaciers/subglacial-lakes/ [8] Space colonization. (n.d.). Princeton University. Retrieved from https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Space_colonization.html

Fidel Castro Essay -- essays research papers

Biography of Fidel Castro Fidel Castro was born on August 14, 1927 in Mayari, Cuba. His parents were relatively wealthy and owned a sugarcane plantation. During his childhood, he attended private Catholic Schools and graduated to attend the University of Havana in 1945. His teachers immediately noticed Fidel's amazing memory, which he used to memorize entire books. At the university, he majored in law studies and became a member of several groups that opposed the Cuban regime, aiding exiles from the Dominican Republic in their political movement. The Cuban government dissolved the group in 1947 and Fidel joined in protests in Bogota that were intended to stop the Ninth International Conference of American States. He graduated with his degree in law in 1950 and had seen the power of political movements. He became a full member of the Ortodoxo Party and campaigned for a seat in the Cuban Congress. However, his plans were disrupted when Fulgencio Batista seized control of the Cuban government in order to prevent the rise of the Orthodoxos. Under Batista, thousands of political opponents were murdered and the people were held under massive oppression. He began plotting militant action against the Batista regime, becoming the leader of nearly 200 revolutionaries from all over Cuba. On July 26, 1953, he led them in a guerilla attack on the Moncada army barracks in Santiage de Cuba. The militia seized weapons and other supplies and their success caused the citizens there to rally...

Child Study Report Essay

Introduction Early childhood educators play an important role in observing, recognizing, and supporting children’s development (Charlesworth, 2014). In this report, child E has been chose to be observed with different observing methods including running record, anecdotal record and learning story. Child E is a 3 years old boy. His father is a New Zealander, and his mother is from China. He is the only child in his family. Child E dose not speak Chinese but only English, this is due to the reason that both his parents speak English at home and his mother does not want him to learn Chinese. Child E was born in New Zealand and he dose not know much about Chinese cultural. He attends at the center five days per week. His mother often drops him in the morning around 10am and the father picks him up around 6pm. Moreover, child E has just been transferred from the toddler room to the pre-school room two weeks ago. Child E and I know each other in the toddler room. In my report, I will focus on physical and socio-emotional developments and link them with development theories and concepts. I will also discuss how these two domains inter-related to the children’s holistic development. Read more: Factors that influence child development essay Physical Development Physical development is an essential domain that is extremely important for children’s development. The physical development of child E can be seen in all the observations. G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell developed Maturation theory. According to the theory, maturation and growth occur together and they are interrelated. In another word, while a child is physically growing up, the nature and quality are changing as well. â€Å"Growth is what happens; maturation is how it happens† (Gordon and Browne, 2014). Furthermore, Gessell transferred his ideas of maturational process into the developmental milestones. The milestones indicate a child’s ability achievement at a certain age (Petty, 2010). The developmental milestone is a useful tool for early childhood teachers due to the reason that teachers can know what a child should achieve at specific ages. This can help teachers to plan and implement learning experiences for children. Also, the physical growth and deve lopment are closely related to children’s essential health and wellbeing  (New Zealand Tertiary College [NZTC], 2014). The physical experience supports children’s motor skills development. Using touching as an example, in observation one, child E patted the teacher and other children to get their attention. Instead of hitting or grabbing hardly, he patted gently. Child E experienced and developed the skill of controlling his motor when touching other people. Moreover, it is stressed in Te WhÄ riki (Ministry of Education [MoE], 1996), although there is a pattern of learning and development, teacher should see each child as an individual and every child follows their own rate of development. Thus, the physical development is not always predictable. To further explain this, in observation one, the action of poking shows the skill of using fine and gross motor. Child E and children J both can poke with the brush well, but their ages are different. In observation three, all the children joined the activity (musical statues) are 3 or 4 years old. They have different levels of balancing skills. In addition, Freud’s psychosexual stages also indicate deferent stages’ main development. He stressed the daily events and experience help children’s physical development in every stage (Berger, 2001). Child E is learning and developing his physical skills in every day life. Besides the theories discussed above, there are also some other factors that influence children’s physical development. Genetic make-up is the internal factors, and there are external factors include nutrition, exercise, social-cultural context, family care and health care services (NZTC, 2014). Genetic factors have impacts on many areas of development. In observation two, child E asked for more food is an example of his body’s natural needs. Social-cultural factor plays a significant role in the physical development. A child’s family vale and believe will influence the child. For instance, in observation two, child E left all the vegetables and only ate the rice and meat. Teachers already talked to his mother about this, and his mother believes the child know what to eat or not. She dose not want to encourage him to eat more vegetables. Instead, she asked teachers to give child E more meat. I also found that in the morning, when child E’s mother drops him at the center, E often has a chocolate muffin or other food high in sugar and fat as his breakfast. A current New Zealand research (Theodore, Thompson, Wall, Becroft, Robinson, Clark, Pryor, Wild & Mitchell, 2006) found that an  unhealthy diet would lead problems like diabetes, obesity, asthma and heart disease in young children, which will influence them a life-long time. Also, an unhealthy and unbalanced diet would cause undernourished problem of children. It has a huge impact on children’s physical development (Berk, 2013). The physical development is closely associated with other development domains. In terms of cognitive development, while children develop their fine and gross motor skills, the brain is stimulated and developed as well (Gordon & Browne, 2014). Take observation three as an example, while child E was finding his balancing with the motor skills, he also used his brain to control his gross and fine motor. Moreover, in the activity, he also used words like ‘move’ and ‘stop’ with his physical movements. His language learning was encouraged as well. Also, physical development inter-relate in relation to children’s social and emotional development, which will be discussed later. Social and emotional development Through all the four observations, child E showed his strong social skills and he was eager to communicate with others. A child’s social and emotional development is affected by both biological nature and the environment surrounds him or her. The different genetic factors and the other external factors influence children behave differently (NZTC, 2014). Building a positive relationship with children is essential for supporting emotions in young children. Supporting children’s emotions in a caring and social context can help the early childhood children to build a secure attachment relationship (Berk, 2013). It is stated in Te WhÄ riki (MoE, 1996), children will show their confidence only when they have built up the sense of belonging and secure at an environment. In observation one, child E chose to take a chair and set right next me. He is new to the pre-school environment, so he felt a little bit of insecure. He knows me from the toddler room a long time ago, so he feels emotionally safe and comfort around me. According to John Bowlby’s young children feels more comfortable around the person they attached to (Berger, 2001). Turning to Sigmund Freud’s theory, he considered personality as a key part of every child’s development. He  believes a newborn baby is governed by the id, which is the source of desire and motives that we born with (Berger, 2001). Erik Erikson further developed and modified Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective of development. Erikson sees the surrounding society as an important factor for every child. He believes that children develop from the interaction with surrounding environment, and a child and his/her environment have influence on each other (Berk, 2013). Most importantly, he added the parent-child relationship as a new interactive aspect. As we talked above, in the physical development part, child E’s mother’s believe obvious has an impact on child E’s eating habits. In the second observation, child E left all the vegetables in the bowl. This might be due to the reason that his parent’s allow him to choose what to eat at home. Different from both Freud’s and Erikson’s view, learning theorists emphasize the role of external forces in children’s social and emotional development. Behaviourism and social learning theory are the two most well-know learning theories. Behaviourism theory focuses on children’s behaviour and it sees culture as a key element of children’s learning. Behaviourism believes that environment can stimulate and elicit children’s responses (MacNaughton, 2003). From the four observations, child E was responding to his surrounding environment a lot. He was developing through interacting with his teachers, peers and toys in the environment. In the first observation, the teacher in pre-school room set up the painting activity to provide opportunities and encourage children to explore. Child E then chose to join the activity. E saw child J’s action and copied it. This is how child E learned from his surrounding environment. Social learning theory is closely linked with Behaviourism. It is because that socialization involves learning about how to behave in a social group. In social learning theory, children are active learners. They develop an understanding of self-awareness and social roles. Modeling, imitation, observation and self-efficacy are the main concepts of this theory. Children will then find out their abilities of doing a task. When they believe that they are good at the task, it is more likely they can overcome the difficulties. Otherwise, they could give up easily (Crain, 2000). In observation 2, child E was trying to keep balance. When he found out that balancing is little bit hard and his peers said he was out, he  stopped trying and felt emotionally uncomfortable. In the contrast, observation 3 shows that he was confident at building the station. Thus, when he needs to rebuild it, he did not give up. Same as physical development, Social and emotional development is also inter-related to children’s holistic development. It is emphasized in Te WhÄ riki (MoE, 1996) that a holistic curriculum is the development of a whole child in both individual and socio-cultural aspects. All the observations show how socio-emotional development and physical development happened in child E’s daily experience together. If E is emotional unwell, his physical development could be effect. Communication is an irreplaceable part of socio-emotional development, either verbal or non-verbal. Language skills are practiced through social experience. Cognitive domain is also influenced by socio-emotional development. Children’s brain is stimulated through interacting with others (Berger, 2001). Spiritual development is also a core part of holistic development. Children build up their sense of wondering and wisdom through social communication. Conclusion To sum up, I have discussed two developmental domains through analysing four observations. Child E has achieved a big improvement in both physical and socio-emotional developments. Moreover, all the developmental areas inter-related with each other, together, create a holistic curriculum for early childhood children. Reference list Berger, K. S. (2001). The developing person through the life span (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers. Berk, L. (2013). Child development (9th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Charlesworth, R. (2014). Understanding child development. (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Crain, W. (2000). Theories of development: Concepts and applications (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gordon, A., & Browne, K. (2014). Beginnings and beyond: Foundations in early childhood education (9th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. MacNaughton, G. (2003). Shaping early childhood: Learners, curriculum and contexts. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Ministry of Education. (1996). Te WhÄ riki: He whÄ riki mÄ tauranga mÃ…  ngÄ  mokopuna o Aotearoa/Early childhood curriculum. Wellington, New Zealand: Learning Media. Petty, K. (2010). Developmental milestones of young children (1st ed.). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press. NewZealand Tertiary College,(2014).Life Span Studies 2 study guide. Auckland, New Zealand: New Zealand Tertiary College.

Auditory Processing Disorder ( Adhd ) - 928 Words

Auditory Processing Disorder affects many children. It affects the way incoming sounds and speech are perceived and processed. Many times Auditory Processing Disorder goes undiagnosed and misdiagnosed as other disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). These Children will also be perceived as unintelligent. A majority of the time these children are of normal intelligence, but due to the difficulties they experience with hearing they are perceived as unintelligent. By examining and studying several sources I will be addressing basic information regarding this disorder, its characteristics, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. It is important to understand this disorder more fully in order to diagnose and treat these patients to the best of our abilities. By diagnosing and creating a treatment plan for the patient at a young age, we can help them overcome and learn how to live with this disorder. We are providing them all the tools necessary to live a succ essful life. â€Å"Auditory Processing Disorder is a measurable neurological defect located in the higher auditory neural pathways. Sound waves enter each ear canal and are passed through the middle ear where they are â€Å"prepared† for delivery to the cochlea (part of the inner ear). The cochlea â€Å"transduces† the sound waves into electric nerve pulses, which are sent to the brain by way of the hearing nerve (VIII Cranial nerve). The eighth nerve inserts at the brainstem, where a complex networkShow MoreRelatedAttention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder ( Adhd ) And / Or Autism Spectrum Disorder930 Words   |  4 Pageswith Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) and/or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) because technology allows them to learn more. In the past few years Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder has come more into the spotlight. It seems like everyone has it. While only about 5% of students are actually diagnosed with ADHD, recent reports have claimed that up to 18.7% of students have it (Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, 2014). Autism Spectrum Disorder has come into the spotlight to withRead MoreIntroduction This report is going to look at two of the diverse problems in modern society. Many1500 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction This report is going to look at two of the diverse problems in modern society. Many of our students have special needs and requirements in our classrooms. I have chosen to look at a disorder for group A that I have not yet come across in my classroom- auditory processing Disorder. In group B I am looking at ADHD which is a common problem within my own classroom and I am sure a growing problem in many classrooms across the world. 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Essay on Disregarding Women in The Picture of Dorian Gray

In the Victorian Era of mid nineteen to early twentieth century, a woman’s role in society remained to be in the household, away from the business and cares of men. The feminine side is portrayed as negative, powerless, and lacking (Kileen 49). Society discouraged women from having power in society and neglecting women represented normal in the eyes of most men and women. However, Victorian novels such as The Picture of Dorian Gray illustrate the consequences of disregarding women. In Oscar Wilde’s only novel, the lack of importance surrounding the female characters and their careless treatment from men results in the selfishness of the male characters exemplified through Dorian Gray’s acts of evil. Dorian Gray inflicts his first and†¦show more content†¦Dorian begins to be concerned only with himself and develops into a selfish person later due to this incident. Furthermore, Lord Henry tells Dorian that her death was merely a theatrical tragedy that is beautiful rather than something to mourn over. He states, â€Å"The girl never really lived, and so she has never really died,† (Wilde 107). The act of Sibyl being tossed aside consequently leads to Dorian transforming from an innocent person to a selfish and evil being. Even though Sibyl Vane’s death dismissal does not directly cause the selfishness of Dorian, it allows for the evilness in him to develop. Because Lord Henry tosses Sibyl Vane’s death aside, Dorian progressively turns his focus onto seeking out pleasure and ignoring morals. If Lord Henry had not simply dismissed Sibyl’s suicide, Dorian would have presumably learned from the tragedy and realized the devastation he has caused. Without Lord Henry’s encouragement, Dorian would not have cast aside the cares of others and focus on pursuing pleasures for himself and following hedonism. Thus, the tossing aside of Sibyl by Lord Henry ultimately leads to Dorian’s selfishness. In additi on, the author of the novel, Oscar Wilde, proved to believe that women possess reasoning, but they fail to develop it (Kileen 52). Authors most primarily reflect their opinions and ideals in their novels; Wilde noShow MoreRelatedThe Picture Of Dorian Gray Analysis1257 Words   |  6 PagesIn the Victorian prose, The Portrait of Dorian Gray explores the idea of duality. The divided self within the character of Dorian Gray begins with his misunderstanding of his self-image, because of the influence of a portrait. Dorian’s fate and transformation connect to the painting, which leads to his downfall. The painting contains Dorians moral decline as changes to the picture affects his life. Through the portrait, he gains an image of himself as an independent individual compared to his previousRead MoreDescriptive Formal, Pictorial And Historic Individuals Into Pigeonholes1853 Words   |  8 Pagesand Richard III. Both of these rulers were overthrown and executed, eventually becomin g fodder for plays by Shakespeare. They have endured much in the name of misconstruction. Disregarding any ideology, several very different authors of this time delivered evil in unforgettable ways with the iconic characters Dorian Gray and Edward Hyde. These two, classically known as villains, demonstrate the Victorian perspective of the battle between good and evil, peaking with the notion of duality. This,Read MoreFilm And Television : Stereotypes And Implications1513 Words   |  7 Pagesused once throughout the entire series, and in a negative context, further proves that the sexual orientation is still largely erased in television because of its inability to â€Å"choose†. Because the bisexual characters listed above prefer both men and women, they do not belong to the established sexual orientations. They are instead forced to choose, and when they do, the stereotype of the bisexual phase is reaffirmed â€Å"and closely related to this assumption that maturity means choosing between those ostensibly

The Lack Of Age Appropriate Transportation Services For...

I would like to focus and investigate the lack of age appropriate transportation services for the elderly and people with disabilities. The issue of transportation becomes a major concern when the elderly and people who are disabled develop uncontrollable age related illnesses and are no longer healthy to drive. Losing the privilege to drive brings independence to an end and forces the elderly to stay at home which may lead to despair and other emotions. Therefore, it is essential to provide our senior citizens and people with disabilities with reliable transportation to help them maintain their independence. It is important to create reliable services to support them in making choices about how they want to live the last years of their†¦show more content†¦She suggest that funding needs to be increase to accommodate the elderly and disabled (Linda, 2014). 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Law and Justice

Question: Describe about the Law and Justice? Answer: Issue: The main issue in this case is whether the time is a relevant essence or not, and the validity of the contract is also in question. In this case both the parties are blaming each other but there was no concurrent proof in relation to that. The time for execution of the contract was changed without proper notification to the appropriate party. The performance from both the parties is stipulated in accordance with the specified time. If it has been changed with the free consent of the other party, then also there is no comprehensive evidence in front of the Ld. Court, for that reason making any decision in relation to that depending upon assumption would not be fair. Facts: De Jong, the plaintiff, was looking to purchase land from Carpenter, the defendant. By virtue of this, the solicitor of the defendant drafted a contract which stated that the sale will depend upon obtaining finance by the purchaser from a particular source before completion of 28 days. He retained a copy of this contract and sent a matching part of the contract to the solicitor of the purchaser. The solicitor of the defendant has been instructed by the defendant to introduce a new condition into the contract which provides completion within a certain period of time of the essence of the contract. This modification was duly made by the solicitor of the defendant in his copy only and the solicitor of the purchaser was neither notified nor aware of this modification. For that reason it was not recorded in the copy of the purchaser. Consequently, both of the solicitors were agree to amend the stipulated period of time in the finance passage from 28 to 14 days. But there was no conclusive evidence that the purchaser gave his free consent to it. Signed copies of the contracts were exchanged among them. But before completion from the part of the defendant as to the contract, plaintiff sought specific performance. Courts decision: As per the observation made by the court and decision given by the court, it has been considered that the decision has given in favor of the defendant rather defendant has won the case. Legal Principals: Proper acceptance of the contract with free consent is a necessary element of every contract. Without the free consent of either part no agreement can be treated as a valid contract, in any contract if free consent from any of the party is not present then that would be a void contract . The legislations governing the contract laws in Australia, also specifies that any contract without the free consent of the parties is void and do not have any legal enforceability. Identification made by the court: The court has observed that there is no conclusive evidence which can support the fact that the defendant has given his consent to the modification made in the contract. It shows that there is a possibility of lack of free consent from the part of the defendant. Any decision based upon any assumption is not possible for the end of justice, so it would not be a valid contract as no assumption or adjustment is permissible with the basic requirements of a valid contract and free consent is a basic requirement. 2.2: In this case Lora cannot enforce Belinda to buy the car in stipulated time, as the new terms which has been introduced by Lora, are inserted into the contract without the consent of Bellinda, even at the time of discussion Belinda knows that the car has fulfilled the criteria that is within 50,000 K.M but in actual it has run more than that, so like the previous discussed case, this contract is also not valid and not legally enforceable due to lack of free consent from Belinda. 3.1: In this case Lee is not guilty, as the two conditions which are to be complied are to stop the vehicle and to render assistance as is necessary. Here the word necessary implies that if any person is injured or suffers any type of loss then the immediate assistance which is required for that person is to be rendered. But if things are alright and no assistance is needed or asked then the other party cannot do anything except stopping the vehicle. Here Lee has complied the first clause and the clause is not required as the person was helped by others and things were seems alright as well as under control. The general meaning of the word is required assistance. This words itself implies the requirement. 3.2: Generally Judges follows three rules of interpretation of statutes, those are Literal rule, Golden rule and mischief rule. Literal rule is the most common one, in this the actual grammatical meaning of the words used in the statutes are taken into consideration. In golden rule the inner meaning or the implied meaning of the provisions is considered. In case of mischief rule when there any conflict among legislations then the detection of the defect and finding out the remedy to solve the conflict is previewing within the scope of mischief rule. There is no difference among Statute, Legislation and Act, all of them are same and equal. 4.1 Here Bruce should file a suit for specific performance. Maud breaches the contract, in any kind of breach of contract there are three remedies, those are specific performance, damages and injunction. In this case Bruce can go for either specific performance or damages but considering the financial condition of Maud, Bruce should go for specific performance of the contract. 4.2: Under this circumstances Amy cannot claim the amount of $ 4,000, as this agreement has domestic elements and the courts have presumed that if any agreement has social or domestic elements then such an agreement will not be legally binding. 4.3: Fact: Ripley used to reside in a big house; he was a affluent and aged man. Ripleys sister (Wakeling), is a married woman and reside in England, whom Ripley wrote a request to live with him in his house at Sydney. In addition to that request, he promised to leave them his belongings and Wakeling can reside in his house for free. For that reason, Wakelings departed from England, sell out her properties, and resigned from her job to migrate to Sydney. After a year, both the parties had a major deviation. In result, Ripley sold his assets and changed his will. Then Wakeling sued Ripley for breach of contract. Issue: Whether domestic or social elements can bind legally or not. Decision: It was held by the Ld. court that the situation which arose from the family members, consequence to a legally binding contract. Opinion with Reason : This decision was appropriate as migration has made depending upon the contract. 4.4: Subjective test depends upon the subject matter of case while in objective test the main object of the Act is taken into consideration. In case of determining the intention, generally objective test is followed by the courts. 5.1: 1. The main argument from the defendant was that the advertisement was a general one for every one, so it is not possible to enter into a contract with the entire world. 2. The court held that its may be for the entire world but if any one comes forward and fulfills the specified conditions then with that person the company enters into a contract. 3. The offer was made to the world at large. Any person by performing specified conditions can enter into that contract. By giving a subsequent advertisement for withdrawal the offer it can be withdrawn. Generally in invitation to treat there no specific condition to be fulfilled and it does not contain any commercial affluence, for that reason it is not an invitation to treat. Subjective test is implemented depending upon the main subject matter of the case while in case of objective test the main object of the case or issue where from dispute arose is taken into account. Here the court has followed the subjective test for determing the main object of the advertisement. 5.2: There is no contract between Jene and the shop keeper, as there was merely an invitation to offer, here Jene has made the offer which is not accepted by the shopkeeper, so without acceptance there is no contract. 5.3: John and Tuan can file a suit against the advertiser, as it was an offer not invitation to offer, here any person who will fulfill the condition, that is to return the dog shall automatically enters into the contract with that person, and then the advertiser is bound to perform his obligation. 5.4: Bill cannot enforce Dave to sell the car as it was merely an invitation to offer not an actual offer, here Bill made the offer to Dave that was not accepted by Dave, and without acceptance there is no contract can be considered. 5.4: In postal rule of acceptance, it completes when the acceptance comes to the knowledge of the person who made the offer. 6.1: Here Kim can sue Huyen for damages as Huyen hide major information from Kim regarding the sold article. 6.2: Terry cannot sue Dave as terry wanted to leave the job which was not legal so the subsequent contract between Terry and Dave is a void contract. 6.3: The doctrine of promissory estoppel was attempted for greater utilization. The agreement between the parties denotes to accept payments in part of a debt in full settlement. The court has been reluctant to override cases like Foakes v Beer as it have formed portion of the common law for such a long period. Justice Arden in the case of Collier v P MJ Wright Ltd, has acknowledged the principal that High Tees could be quench the right of a creditor in full settlement of a dept in such situation. 6.4: In this famous case an ex-wife tried to take benefit of the rule that had been acknowledged in the High Trees case, to compel her husband to pay maintenance to her. In this case the court held that there is no scope for application of promissory estoppels, it can be used as a defence but not as a cause of action. In Lagione v Hateley case it was observed by the court that the rule of promissory estoppels can be used only as defence, no cause of action can be sought depending upon promissory estoppels. In present days promissory estoppel exists in a strict manner, it does not confirm any cause opf action but defence can be made depending upon this rule. It denotes that if the relying party changes his position due to the faith of the promise, will suffer from detriment, if it was allowed to depart from his enforcement of former contractual rights. 7.1 Parol Evidence Rule is considered as a law which restricts the party to a written agreement from disclosing any extrinsic proof. 7.2: The contract between Yvonne and Marcel and sale of tyres by Yvonne can be taken in account. Marcel has to show the tyres defect and bill of sales for claiming his part. 7.3: If there is already damage before taking goods in hand, then the signature of authoritative party if there is any damage 7.4: Exclusion clauses are that which prevent parties to the contract. 7.5: Requirement of notice is legal concept and it is needed to make parties aware about legal process. A contractual term that has less legal gravity is non-contractual documents. Examples: if one party counsel other that document does not hold any liability exclusion.A term that leads to contractual obligation is contractual document. Examples: drawings, specifications, executed agreements.Contractual documents considers legal obligation at high and can lead to litigation whereas non contractual document considers less legal aspects. 8.1: Constructive notice is taken as legal fiction which ensures that people should understand even if they do not hold any knowledge about it.8.2: None of the mentioned terms are discussed as these conditions are implied. The purchaser will expect the same quality of product which was provided earlier. This expectation is implied. 8.3: In the above mentioned two statutes the word that implies the object of the statute to a certain extend are Fair and Competition.8.4: The food supplier cannot sue John as he is incompetent to contract, and the food supplier entered into a contract with a minor, therefore the contract is void. 9.1: (a) iii) a misrepresentation (b) iii) a misrepresentation 9.2: a) it was not a misrepresentation. b) it was a fraudulent misrepresentation to sell the car. c) it was a innocent misrepresentation. Fraudulent misrepresentation is done with an intention to deceive but innocent misrepresentation is done due to lack of knowledge. 9.3: a) The contract would be void, and the actual seller shall have the right upon the sold item. b) The court decided that the contract is a void contract and does not have any legal enforceability, and the item shall be owned by the shop keeper. c) it is a fraudulent misrepresentation. As it was not intended to make any face to face contract but to any random person who will come to the shop. 10.1: Raymond cannot claim it as Maria disposed her property with her own consent. 10.2: Economic duressin a contract arose when a party to the contract threatens to cancel the contract unless the other party consented to their anxiety. E.g. John and Ronny enters into a contract where john will sell umbrellas to Ronny but suddenly John refuses to sell it unless Ronny increases the price of the goods. 10.3: Yes, Marks behaviour constitute unconscionable conduct, as knowingly the facts he took undue advantages.11.1: 1) Discharge of contract means ending the contract. These are the ways to end a contract: By performance; By agreement; By subsequent agreement; By operation of law; By election after breach; By frustration 2) It mainly depends upon the terms, object and implications of the contract. 3) If there is no fault from the parties, and situation restrict the parties from further obligations then it shall be discharged by frustration. 4) Damages provided for infringement of the right. Punitive damages means damages give with example of a similar kind breach or obligation. Yes, punitive damages are provided by the courts in relevant suites. 5) As the court held that Baxendale could only be responsible for the losses that were usually foreseeable, or if Hadley had specified his particular situation in advance. 6) Tyre dealer shall be liable for this incident, and in the second case the answer will remain same as the above. References: Barling, Julian and Michael Robert Frone, The Psychology Of Workplace Safety (American Psychological Association, 2004)Beale, H. G and Denis Tallon, Contract Law (Hart Pub., 2002)Brmmelmeyer, Christoph, 'Principles Of European Insurance Contract Law' (2011) 7 European Review of Contract LawDi Girolamo, Nick, Recent Reforms To S.54 Of The Insurance Contract Act 1984 (NSW Young Lawyers, the Law Society of NSW, 2004)Elliott, Catherine and Frances Quinn, Contract Law (Pearson Longman, 2007)Gale, Chris, 'The Business Of Business Law' (2007) 49 Managerial LawHarrison, Jeffrey L and Jules Theeuwes, Law And Economics (W.W. Norton Co., 2008)International Labour Law Reports, Editors, 'Austral.1 AUSTRALIA' (1996) 17 International Labour Law Reports OnlineKokkoris, Ioannis, Merger Control In Europe (Routledge, 2011)Mann, Trischa, Australian Law Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2009)Morgan, Jonathan, Great Debates In Contract Law (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012)Olsson, L. T, Guide To Uniform Produ ction Of Judgments (Australian Institute of Judicial Administration, 1999)Richards, Paul, Law Of Contract (Pearson Longman, 2007)Slapper, Gary and David Kelly, The English Legal System (Cavendish, 2004)Slorach, J. Scott and Jason G Ellis, Business Law (Oxford University Press, 2007)Vollm, B., 'AS03-01 - Reactions And Consequences Following Judgements By The European Court Of Human Rights In The UK' (2012) 27 European Psychiatry[1] David Kelly, Ann E. M Holmes and Ruth Hayward, Business Law (Cavendish, 2005).[2] K. L Fletcher and K. L Fletcher, The Law Of Partnership In Australia (Lawbook Co, 2007).[3] Denis J Keenan and Sarah Riches, Business Law (Pearson Longman, 2007).[4] Ewan MacIntyre, Business Law (Pearson Longman, 2008).[5] Paul Richards, Law Of Contract (Pearson Longman, 2007).[6] J. Scott Slorach and Jason G Ellis, Business Law (Oxford University Press, 2007).[7] H. G Beale and Denis Tallon, Contract Law (Hart Pub., 2002).[8] Catherine Elliott and Frances Quinn, Contract Law (Pearson Longman, 2007).[9] Christoph Brmmelmeyer, 'Principles Of European Insurance Contract Law' (2011) 7 European Review of Contract Law.[10] Chris Gale, 'The Business Of Business Law' (2007) 49 Managerial Law.[11] B. Vollm, 'AS03-01 - Reactions And Consequences Following Judgements By The European Court Of Human Rights In The UK' (2012) 27 European Psychiatry.[12] L. T Olsson, Guide To Uniform Production Of Judgments (Australian Institute of Judicial Administration, 1999).[13] Nick Di Girolamo, Recent Reforms To S.54 Of The Insurance Contract Act 1984 (NSW Young Lawyers, the Law Society of NSW, 2004).[14] Lars Meyer, Non-Performance And Remedies Under International Contract Law Principles And Indian Contract Law (P. Lang, 2010).[15] Jeffrey L Harrison and Jules Theeuwes, Law And Economics (W.W. Norton Co., 2008).[16] Julian Barling and Michael Robert Frone, The Psychology Of Workplace Safety (American Psychological Association, 2004).[17] Jonathan Morgan, Great Debates In Cont ract Law (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).[18] Gary Slapper and David Kelly, The English Legal System (Cavendish, 2004).[19] Trischa Mann, Australian Law Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 2009).[20] Ioannis Kokkoris, Merger Control In Europe (Routledge, 2011).[21] Editors International Labour Law Reports, 'Austral.1 AUSTRALIA' (1996) 17 International Labour Law Reports Online.